Is there anything cooler in the culinary world than the mushroom? For starters, they’re blissfully weird: Some can have 23,000 sexes. Some glow-in-the-dark. Some can kill you. But more importantly for us cooks, so many mushrooms are just damn delicious. 

“The fun thing about mushrooms and fungi is that they’re always kind of upending our assumptions about things,” says Maya Han, culture representative for the New York Mycological Society and consultant for the New York Botanical Gardens. And she’s right: Fungi are inherently non-binary, not fitting into the neat, clean orders of the plant or animal kingdom, which is why biologists have placed them in a category all their own. “The fact that they are the third kingdom makes them kind of inherently queer,” Han says. 

Mushrooms are queer indeed—especially when it comes to narrowing down which ones are best to eat, and how to prepare them. So, to demystify these fungi, I spoke to Han, as well as forager and co-author of Wild Mushrooms, A Cookbook and Foraging Guide, Kristen Blizzard, and Joseph Rizzo, a mushroom cultivator and owner of Blue Oyster Cultivation.  

What Are Mushrooms? 

While mushrooms are found alongside vegetables and fruits at the grocery store, they aren’t plants—they lack chlorophyll and are unable to make their own food, instead consuming dead and decaying organic matter. They also aren’t animals, as they consume their nutrients by absorption instead of ingestion and grow from spores. For those reasons, mushrooms belong to the fungi kingdom, along with yeasts, molds, mildews, and rusts. 

Mushrooms are actually the fruiting body of certain fungi, explains Han. “They’re kind of analogous to the fruit on a tree,” she says, adding that they also bear spores, making them the reproductive part of a fungus. 

Most edible mushrooms are sought after for their taste; they contain glutamate, an amino acid also found in cheese, meat, and fish, which gives mushrooms their savory, umami flavor. Many also have a meaty texture due to the presence of chitin in their biological makeup, a substance found in the shells of shrimp and crab. Thanks to these elements, mushrooms are commonly found in many cuisines—sautéed in a French duxelle, shaved over a pizza, simmered in a Japanese miso ramen, or braised in a Thai curry. 

Where Do Mushrooms Come From?

In the United States, mushrooms typically fall into two categories: cultivated varieties and foraged varieties. Some, like the oyster mushroom and shiitake, can either be foraged or cultivated, depending on where they’re found. The most common mushrooms in grocery stores, like the white button, cremini, and portobello, are cultivated, not foraged. 

A majority of common cultivated mushrooms in the US are grown in California and Pennsylvania. Rizzo explains that cultivated mushrooms are grown on either compost or sawdust, depending on the variety. White button mushrooms, along with portobello and cremini, are usually grown in sterile environments on compost. At Rizzo’s farm, he focuses on wood-eating varieties like shiitake, lion’s mane, and oyster mushrooms, and grows them on sawdust that’s been steam sterilized to create a hygienic environment. The sawdust is put into a breathable bag, where a culture of mushroom spores are introduced. Those spores colonize the wood, and then mushrooms grow within it. 

Foraged mushrooms—like morels, chanterelles, and maitakes—are found in forested areas, as they prefer particular trees, and thrive in damp, dark conditions. These mushrooms can also vary slightly in appearance, texture, and flavor depending on where they’re grown. “We use the word ‘terroir’ all the time in relation to mushrooms,” says Blizzard. “And for me, this idea of terroir is not just the forest and the soil, but there’s also the recall of the experience of picking them.”

Whether cultivated or foraged, culinary mushrooms are available in a few distinctive shapes: cap and stem mushrooms, for example, can have a round, flat, or conical “cap” and a stem that varies in thickness. Shelf mushrooms are large and tend to grow in clusters, while trumpet mushrooms are shaped like small horns or open flowers, and a few mushrooms even look like puffballs.

19 Mushroom Varieties to Know

There are 14,000 known species of mushrooms, and there are always more fungi being discovered on a semi-regular basis, according to Han. “It’s very difficult to go out on a birding walk and discover a new species of bird,” she says. “But with fungi, you can do that.” Below is a list of edible mushrooms commonly available and used in cooking—though it’s by no means exhaustive.

Portobello

Size: Large, about four to six inches in diameter
Appearance: Cap and stem mushroom with a brown exterior, a large, flat, rounded cap, and dark brown gills underneath 
Texture: Firm and meaty 
Flavor: Rich, savory, and earthy 

Thanks to its large size, deep flavor, and meaty texture, the portobello is like the steak of the mushroom world, says Han. Its firm texture allows for easy grilling, making it an ideal substitute for burgers, as well as a great variety to stuff. The portobello, white button, and cremini are all actually the same mushroom—Agaricus bisporus—that are just harvested at different times in their life to achieve their flavor, texture, and size. The portobello is the most mature, and loses moisture as it ages, giving it the most concentrated flavor and firm texture.

White Button

Size: Small to medium 
Appearance: Cap and stem mushroom with white, very rounded cap
Texture: Spongy with a slight firmness in the cap; stem is often more fibrous than the cap
Flavor: Mild, but intensifies when cooked 

The white button mushroom is the most popular in the US, accounting for the majority of mushrooms consumed. It’s also the youngest of the Agaricus bisporus mushrooms available, and is white due to a genetic mutation that was discovered in the early 1920s. If the portobello is the steak of mushrooms, then Han considers the white button to be the “tofu” because of its mild flavor and versatility. Beyond its mild flavor, the white button is also one of the least expensive mushrooms available, making it more feasible to add to mushroom-heavy dishes like chicken marsala, top mushroom pizza, or slice raw en masse for a Ruby Tuesday salad bar.  

Cremini

Size: Small to medium 
Appearance: Cap and stem mushroom that’s light tan to rich brown in color, with a well-rounded cap 
Texture: Slightly firmer than white buttons, but similarly spongy 
Flavor: More umami and savoriness than white buttons 

Somewhat of a middle ground between the white button and portobello in terms of age and genetic makeup, the cremini (also spelled crimini) mushroom has a slightly firmer texture and a deeper, more savory flavor than the white button. While creminis can be used nearly interchangeably with white buttons, their deeper flavor makes them a better complement to beef and wild game dishes. 

Maitake (Hen of the Woods)

Size: Very large; can reach one foot across and weigh about 5 to 10 pounds on average
Appearance: Clustered shelf mushroom in a rippling frond shape that resembles a bunch of feathers; color can vary from cream to gray or dark gray, depending on age 
Texture: Tender and succulent
Flavor: Rich and woodsy with a nutty aroma

Also called hen of the woods, due to its feather-like shape, the maitake is found in the Eastern and Midwestern US in early fall. They grow under oak trees, and mother-loads are found around the biggest trees. Because of their large size, these mushrooms can be roasted whole, almost like a large cauliflower, says Han, or they can be broken down into smaller pieces and sautéed; they crisp up when fried as well. Their rich flavor makes them popular in Japanese and Italian dishes, especially vegan ramens and cream-based pastas.

Shiitake

Size: Medium 
Appearance: Cap and stem mushroom with an umbrella-shaped cap that curls under itself; cap varies from tan to brown, with a white underside and stem 
Texture: Dense and meaty 
Flavor: Smoky and umami-packed; intensifies when dried 

Native to East Asia, shiitake mushrooms are commonly found in Japanese, Korean, and Chinese dishes, such as ramens or stir-fries. These mushrooms aren’t found wild in the US, but cultivators, like Rizzo, have been able to produce them commercially on sawdust blocks, and they are also easily cultivated on logs by backyard mushroom growers. 

Known for their deep, savory flavor, shiitakes are often used for an umami boost in many dishes, especially soups and stocks. They are also commonly found dried, which can intensify their flavor. To rehydrate them, let them soak for about 20 minutes in boiling water, then save the mushroom stock for use as a flavoring agent.  

Chanterelles

Size: Small to large, depending on where it’s found 
Appearance: Cap and stem mushroom with a flower-like shape; typically golden in color but sometimes red or white, depending on where it’s found
Texture: Delicate and crisp  
Flavor: Distinctive fruity, apricot aroma and delicate earthy flavor

Found in the forests of Europe, Asia, and North America, this gourmet mushroom changes slightly in size, color, and flavor intensity depending on where it’s grown. In the Pacific Northwest, for example, chanterelles often grow under conifers, and don’t come into season until later in the fall. When they do emerge, they have a bright golden color and a hint of apricot flavor, while chanterelles grown in drier climates, like parts of Colorado or Arizona, may have a more concentrated apricot flavor. Chanterelles from the Pacific Northwest are the most commonly sold variety in the States, even popping up at places like Costco when they’re in season. Because these can only be foraged in the wild during a limited season, chanterelles tend to be pricier than more common mushrooms like portobellos and white buttons.

The delicate flavor of this mushroom is beautiful in dishes with cream or eggs, says Blizzard. “My favorite thing to eat [chanterelles] with, I have to say, is eggs,” she says. “They’re awesome in an omelet or anything with eggs and cheese, but especially quiche.” 

Enoki

Size: Small 
Appearance: Grown in tightly packed bouquets; wispy, small, and bright white with a tiny cap and long stem
Texture: Thin stems take on an almost noodle-like texture when cooked, similar to rice vermicelli 
Flavor: Clean and slightly sweet 

Cultivated commercially in East Asia, the ghost white enoki we see at Asian markets and grocery stores in the US looks nothing like how it would appear in its natural habitat, notes Rizzo. “In the wild, it’s kind of more robust, thicker, very kind of a colorful brown-yellow type of mushroom,” he says. When cultivated, the mushrooms are denied light and oxygen to give them their distinctive white color and legginess. Despite being so thin, though, they hold up well in many Asian soups, and are a common ingredient in Chinese hot pot due to their mild, slightly sweet flavor, which pairs well with ginger, soy sauce, and garlic. 

Lion’s Mane

Size: Medium to large 
Appearance: Fuzzy, white, and bulbous; almost resemble snowballs  
Texture: Shaggy exterior that looks a bit like crab 
Flavor: Sweet and reminiscent of seafood 

Perhaps one of the oddest-looking edible mushrooms, lion’s mane is often used as a seafood substitute in everything from “fish” tacos to “crab” cakes due to its stringy, pull-apart texture and sweet, shellfish-like flavor. “It is definitely not the earthy, kind of heavy, rich, portobello mushroom fungal type flavor,” says Rizzo. While the mushroom can be found in the States in the late summer and early fall, it’s considered an “advanced” foraging mushroom, so most varieties you’ll see at specialty stores are cultivated, either using logs or breathable bags. 

Morels

Size: Small 
Appearance: An elongated cap with a distinctive honeycomb pattern; ranges in color from brown to black and is hollow on the inside—an important distinction between them and poisonous false morels
Texture: Thin and tender 
Flavor: Meaty, nutty, and umami-packed 

In the US, morels appear in spring, sometimes as early as after the last snow, and are one of the more sought-after gourmet mushrooms in the country. (They often have a price tag to match, too.) Morels are a mycorrhizal fungus, meaning they have a symbiotic relationship with trees. For that reason, these mushrooms cannot be cultivated and must be foraged wild, despite having dangerous, toxic lookalikes, like the false morel. In fact, even true morels should always be thoroughly cooked, as they can also be toxic when raw—even potentially fatal. When prepared properly, they are an unparalleled delicacy. “They’re just a delicious mushroom,” says Blizzard, noting that they are often found in gravies with butter, creamy pastas, atop a steak, stuffed with cheese and fried, or simply sautéed. 

Oyster

Size: Medium to large
Appearance: Clusters of shelf mushrooms that grow like a bed of oysters in gray, yellow, pink, and blue hues 
Texture: Dense and velvety 
Flavor: Meaty and slightly briny, with a bit of anise on the nose when foraged wild

Oyster mushrooms are becoming increasingly popular across the US, especially since they can easily be cultivated. They cook quickly, making them a no-brainer in stir-fries and other pan-seared dishes. The mushrooms are also easily substituted in dishes that call for white button or cremini mushrooms, especially if you’re looking for an option with a bit more flavor. “They are not only gorgeous to look at, but also delicious,” says Han. “I make a fabulous vegan carnitas—shredding them like pork, marinating, and roasting them.” Blizzard often includes them in curry, adding them after her aromatics and only simmering the dish for about five to 10 minutes, since oyster mushrooms can get slimy in dishes with added liquid. 

Porcini

Size: Medium to large 
Appearance: Short and squat cap and stem mushroom with a white stem and rounded cap that ranges from light tan to a dark reddish brown
Texture: Slippery exterior when fresh, but firm and meaty 
Flavor: Bold and nutty 

Porcini thrive in forests globally, but are particularly a staple in European cuisines, especially Austrian, Italian, Polish, and Spanish, as well as in Russia. Appearing in late summer and fall in the US, these wild mushrooms are often found around pine trees in large numbers. The most sought-after varieties are young, as they can be eaten raw or cooked and (unlike many other foraged mushrooms) can hold up to freezing at home, too, thanks to their firm texture. Porcini soften as they age, but drying them is an ideal way to extend their culinary life. Try them in pastas and risottos, paired with potatoes in latkes or dumplings, or in gravy. 

Truffles

Size: Small to medium
Appearance: Irregular round shape with a bumpy exterior; light tan to black 
Texture: Hard, like a raw potato 
Flavor: Intensely aromatic, musky, nutty, and earthy 

First thing’s first: Truffles aren’t technically mushrooms, though they are similar. Both truffles and mushrooms are in the fungi kingdom and serve as the fruiting body for fungi. However, truffles belong exclusively to the Tuber genus, while mushrooms fall under several genera. Truffles also grow underground, relying on animals to help spread their spores, while mushrooms disperse their spores on their own. Because truffles are found only in the wild, in symbiosis with hazelnut and oak trees, and require a truffle dog or pig to help source them, they are an expensive delicacy. 

Truffles are often used raw, either thinly sliced or grated over a dish, or infused into oils, butters, and creams.

Lobster

Size: Medium to large 
Appearance: Irregular, almost flower-like shape with a bright yellow-orange color 
Texture: Thick, dense, and very firm 
Flavor: Nutty and earthy with a hint of shellfish 

Unlike many other common edible varieties, lobster mushrooms are actually a parasite—forming only after an Ascomycetes fungi attacks and eats another fungi. “They become that bright yellow-orange, and also their flavor changes,” says Han. Lobster mushrooms appear primarily in North America’s temperate forests, and their firm texture and subtle shellfish flavor make them a great seafood substitute in American dishes. “If you have any shellfish or fish stock or seasoning, you can add that,” says Han, as this will enhance the mushroom’s shellfish flavor, like in a creamy lobster mushroom bisque. “What’s also really fun is making vegan lobster rolls with the lobster mushroom,” she says. “It’s very convincing.”

Wood Ear

Size: Medium
Appearance: Ear-shaped shelf that’s dark brown to black 
Texture: Firm and gelatinous when raw, crispy and chewy when cooked 
Flavor: Mild and neutral 

Wood ear mushrooms are most commonly found in Chinese and East Asian cuisines because of their texture. Unlike other mushrooms, wood ears retain their texture in most dishes and take on the flavor of whatever they’re cooked with. They are commonly found in hot and sour soup, moo shu pork, and dumplings, as well as Korean japchae. Across the US, wood ears are typically sold dehydrated and found at Asian grocery stores and markets (sometimes labeled “black fungus”).

King Trumpet

Size: Large 
Appearance: Thick white stems with a light brown, flat cap 
Texture: Firm and meaty 
Flavor: Delicate, nutty 

Sometimes called king oysters, king trumpets actually belong to the oyster mushroom family, and are the largest variety available within it. While some mushrooms have fibrous stems that are often discarded when cooking, the stems of king trumpets are easy to use. When sliced and seared with butter, they can somewhat mimic the texture of scallops. They are often used thinly sliced in Korean dishes, like kimchi jjigae, bibimbap, or glazed with gochujang for a vegan main course. King trumpets are native to East Asia and the Mediterranean, but can also be cultivated elsewhere by hobbyists and small producers using sawdust. 

Chicken of the Woods

Size: Large 
Appearance: Shelf, feather-like clusters in bright orange and yellow 
Texture: Firm and meaty 
Flavor: Similar to chicken breast 

Emerging in late summer to early fall, chicken of the woods mushrooms grow in temperate and subtropical climates spanning Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America. They are often found on dead or dying wood and trees, and can even attack living trees as a parasite. In the kitchen, they’ve become very popular as a stand-in for meat, specifically chicken. However, Blizzard notes that older varieties can be tough, and therefore benefit from being marinated before cooking. She especially loves the way they absorb sauces and broths. “They do have this sponging effect where, if you introduce them to, say, cream and lemon and butter, they soak all that stuff into them,” she says. “And it makes this really delicious texture that kind of is firm but melts in your mouth and is full of all that flavor that you just put in.” 

Black Trumpet

Size: Small to medium 
Appearance: A trumpet shape with jet black skin 
Texture: Delicate, but slightly leathery 
Flavor: Deep and earthy with a subtle smokiness 

Despite having the nickname “Trumpet of Death” because of their jet black color, these mushrooms are not only edible, but a favorite for chefs and home cooks thanks to their intense and distinctive flavor, which is comparable to a truffle. (Black trumpets have even been called the “poor man’s truffle,” as their flavor can mimic that of the truffle, but at a fraction of the cost.) “If it’s your first time tasting, I’d take a bite of them raw, and then sauce them in butter or olive oil to get their natural flavor, before adding in creams or herbs,” says Han. In the US, the black trumpet is found predominantly in Northern California and Southern Oregon, popping up in January and February, making them one of the few edible mushrooms in season in the winter. They pair well with other winter ingredients, too: acorn and butternut squash, beets, and even citrus are great accompaniments, not to mention cozy dishes like risotto. 

Beech (Shimeji)

Size: Small
Appearance: Bouquet-like cluster of white or brown small-capped mushrooms with thin stems 
Texture: Firm, crisp, and slightly chewy 
Flavor: Bitter when raw but cashew-like when cooked 

Often grown indoors, beech mushrooms—also sold in the US by their Japanese name, shimeji—are typically found at specialty grocery stores and farmers markets, and are most prominent in Japanese cuisine. They are often included in miso soup, for example, as well as udon soups. You’ll also encounter beech mushrooms in Thai soups and curries, and in Vietnamese pho chay (vegetarian pho). Often confused with enoki, as they are sometimes white and have a similar shape, beech mushrooms typically have a firmer texture that holds up when cooking. 

Straw

Size: Small 
Appearance: Squat and short with an elongated brown cap
Texture: Smooth, firm, and chewy 
Flavor: Mild, earthy 

You’ll most often see straw mushrooms canned at Asian grocery stores, as they are firm enough to withstand the canning process, have a relatively uniform size and shape, and retain their mild flavor well. Straw mushrooms can be cultivated with rice straw, and are widely grown throughout Asia—China being a major producer, as well as Vietnam, Thailand, and India. They are most at home in those cuisines, and can be added to stir-fries, soups, laabs, and curries. Canned varieties that are marked as “unpeeled” have a slightly stronger flavor, while dehydrated straw mushrooms tend to taste even stronger. 

How to Shop for Mushrooms

As consumer interest in mushrooms continues to grow, many grocery stores are beginning to stock a variety of mushrooms beyond just white buttons. Han also suggests seeking out Asian grocery stores for an even greater variety of fresh mushrooms, as well as canned and dried options. Farmers markets are best for local options, especially foraged varieties. 

When buying fresh mushrooms, Han suggests choosing the freshest ones, with firm flesh. “If it’s starting to look a little shriveled or dried out, don’t get it,” she says. Also avoid mushrooms with dark spots or discoloration, as this can be one of the first signs of decay. 

If possible, it’s also best to smell mushrooms before purchasing them.  “[They] should have kind of a fresh, earthy—for lack of a better term—mushroom-y scent,” she says. “Avoid anything that smells off or putrid or weird.” 

How to Store and Clean Mushrooms

While mushrooms need damp environments to grow, once picked, it’s best to keep them as dry as possible. Han suggests not cleaning mushrooms until you’re going to use them. While Kenji found that it is OK to clean mushrooms by washing them, the experts I consulted recommend brushing dirt off rather than fully rinsing or submerging the mushrooms, as too much water can dilute the flavor of some more delicate varieties.

The dirtiest part of the mushroom will likely be the end of its stem or base, which connects to the fungi’s mycelium, or root-like structure that forms underground. “There might be a little bit of dirt on the bottom, but generally, cultivated mushrooms are raised in sterile environments,” says Han. She uses a mushroom brush, much like a small pastry brush, to clean hers. If she’s foraged mushrooms and thinks they could use a rinse, she gives them a spin in a salad spinner afterwards to ensure they are fully dry.

It’s also best to avoid keeping mushrooms in any type of plastic—a fully sealed plastic bag or plastic-wrapped container will collect moisture, which will speed up the mushrooms’ decay. Instead, store them in a paper bag in the fridge to extend their shelf life. If you only have plastic bags or storage containers around, keep them open to make sure the mushrooms are properly ventilated. 

How to Cook With Mushrooms

Raw vs. Cooked 

While all the mushrooms on this list are edible, some require a few precautionary measures before consuming. Many varieties should not be eaten raw. Raw morels, for example, can be toxic, while raw chicken of the woods can sometimes cause gastric distress. “Mushrooms have something called chitin in them that doesn’t break down very well in your system unless they’re cooked,” explains Blizzard. Chitin is a substance often found in the exterior skeletons of insects, as well as in the shells of shrimp, crab, lobster, and many types of mushrooms—even the most common varieties. It can be difficult to digest, but easier on the body when cooked. When sautéeing, make sure that the mushrooms release all their liquid, then soften and soak up any oil, fat, or aromatics. When simmering, they should be softened and take on a deeper color before consuming.  

Stir-Fries and Sautées 

One of the simplest ways to prepare most mushrooms is in a pan with a neutral oil or butter. When using mushrooms in a sauté or stir-fry, they’ll often release liquid before they’re able to soak up a sauce, especially wild mushrooms like chanterelles. “​​When we’re cooking them, we will let them give up their moisture when we’re sautéeing them,” says Blizzard. “And then at some point, they sort of suck that moisture back in and the pan becomes dry.” A dry pan typically means the mushrooms are done. This is especially true when making duxelles, a simple traditional French preparation of mushrooms and shallots that’s used to fill a tarte, stuff a chicken, or surround a beef Wellington.

Soups and Stews 

Whether it’s hot pot, ramen, or a creamy mushroom bisque, many types of mushrooms are at home in warm, comforting dishes. Umami-packed mushrooms can enhance broths and stocks—especially when dried—and firmer mushrooms like lobster or chicken of the woods can withstand being simmered slowly without getting too mushy. According to Blizzard, another trick for softening tough mushrooms, like older chicken of the woods, is to marinate them overnight in buttermilk, or a bit of milk and lemon juice.

Gravies and Sauces

Mushrooms’ earthy, savory flavor is a welcome addition in pasta sauces, risottos, and gravy. Most mushrooms work well with creamy pastas, but if making a red sauce, look for mushrooms with bolder, deeper flavor, like shiitake or portobellos. If you’re using truffles, a little goes a long way—just adding a few shavings on top or incorporating a teaspoon of gratings in the finished dish will do the trick. 

Italian

Pasta ai Funghi (Creamy Pasta With Mushrooms)

cook time:


45 mins

serves:


4

As a Meat Substitute

The firmest, meatiest mushrooms will hold up best to grilling and frying, or as a stand-in for meat, like in a portobello mushroom burger or a shiitake mushroom po-boy. Given that chicken of the woods has a particularly firm texture with a flavor that is actually reminiscent of chicken, it’s an ideal stand-in for a chicken breast or thigh. Additionally, lion’s mane, oyster, lobster, and king trumpet mushrooms all have a briny or shellfish-like flavor that makes them a great stand-in in faux fish tacos, “lobster” bisque, or even seared “scallops.” A mixed medley of chopped mushrooms can also be formed into a holiday roast or pâté. 

September 2024

This essay was originally published as the cover story in the Summer 2025 issue of Orion Magazine.

“Who are you?” the caterpillar barks at Alice from atop the giant mushroom, and Alice, never quite having considered the question, mutters a child’s version of Emily Dickinson’s “I’m nobody! Who are you?”

Before he was Lewis Carroll, author of the Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland books, Charles Dodgson was a logician. His Wonderland is a series of nested thought experiments about change and the limits of logic. When the caterpillar tells Alice that one side of the mushroom would make her smaller and the other taller, Alice is stupefied by how something perfectly round can have sides, how a single thing can produce such opposite effects. And yet inside this fictional parable about the nature of the self is a biological reality about the nature of fungi — organisms that operate according to a different logic. They belong to a single kingdom, yet they are endowed with polar powers: the lion’s mane mushroom that can sharpen a mind and the honey fungus that can slay a tree; the cordyceps that can drive an ant to suicide and the psilocybin that can drive you to delirium; the Penicillium that has saved millions of lives and the Puccinia graminis that has blighted nations into deadly famines, changing the census of the world.

I grew up with Alice, and I grew up with mushrooms. Around the time I discovered Wonderland, my mother — my complicated mother oscillating between the poles of the mind — discovered foraging. Each weekend we would head into the forests of Bulgaria and spend long hours searching — for mushrooms, yes, but also for a common language between our two island universes. I delighted in the unbidden flame of a chanterelle on a bed of moss, in the shy bloom of a shaggy parasol between the pines, and, once, in finding a king bolete bigger than my awestruck face. Here was a world that was wilder yet safer than my own, resinous with wonder. I was captivated by the notion that edible species could have poisonous doubles, by the way the brain forms a search image that trains the eye on the inconspicuous domes. Mushrooms were helping me learn so much of what life was already teaching me — that a thing can look like something you love but turn dangerous, even deadly; that the more you expect something, the more of it you find.

An organism, of course, is not a parable or a metaphor. An organism is a cathedral of complexity, both sovereign and interdependent. Although mushrooms have populated our myths and our medicine for millennia, they were only factored into our model of the living world less than a century ago. When Linnaeus devised his landmark classification system, he divided nature into three kingdoms: two living (plants and animals) and one nonliving (minerals). The scientists of his generation gave fungi no special attention, brushing them under the conceptual carpet of plants. Darwin ignored them altogether, even though we now know that fungi are the fulcrum by which evolution lifted life out of the ocean and onto the land — they greened the earth, helping aquatic plants adapt to terrestrial life by anchoring their primitive roots, not yet capable of acquiring nutrients on their own, in a mycorrhizal substrate of symbiosis.

Perhaps, then, it is not accidental that a marine biologist — Ernst Haeckel, who coined the word ecology the year Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland entered the world — proposed Protista as a new kingdom of life for primitive life-forms that are neither plants nor animals; after some hesitation, he moved fungi into it. But it would be another century before, just after my mother was born, the American plant ecologist Robert Whittaker gave fungi their own kingdom of life.

Among the hundreds of thousands of species now known, and probably millions not yet named, there are ones that crumble at the lightest touch and ones that can survive the assault of cosmic radiation in outer space. On the western edge of North America thrives a fungal colony older than calculus, older than Jesus, older than the wheel. In the mountains of East Asia blooms a bright blue mushroom that bleeds indigo. A bioluminescent agaric lights up the forests of Brazil and the islands of Japan. Across tropical Taiwan grows a pale blue mushroom whose button is smaller than a millimeter. In the old-growth forests of Oregon dwells an individual fungus spanning eighteen hundred football fields — Earth’s largest living organism.

Without fungi, we would never know Earth’s most beautiful flowers — orchid seeds have no energy reserve of their own and can only obtain their carbon through a fungal symbiont — or Earth’s most alien: white as bone, the ghost pipe (Monotropa uniflora) lacks the chlorophyll by which other plants capture photons to alchemize sunlight into sugar for life. Emily Dickinson considered the ghost pipe “the preferred flower of life.” A painting of it graced the cover of her posthumously published poems. She was not wrong to think it “almost supernatural,” for it subverts the ordinary laws of nature: rather than reaching up for sunlight like green plants, the ghost pipe reaches down so that its cystidia — the fine hairs coating its roots — can entwine around the branching filaments of underground fungi, known as hyphae, sapping nutrients the fungus has drawn from the roots of nearby photosynthetic trees.

These mycorrhizal relationships permeate every ecosystem, making fungi the enchanted subterranean loom on which the fabric of nature is woven. Perhaps this is why it was so hard for so long to classify them separately from other life-forms. Perhaps we never should have done so. Perhaps it was a mistake to segregate them into a separate kingdom, or to have kingdoms at all, as nonsensical as dividing a planet veined with rivers and spined with mountains into countries bounded by borders that cut across ecosystems with the blade of warring nationalisms. Beneath every battlefield in the history of the world a mycelial wonderland has continued to thrive, continued to turn death into life so that ghost pipes and orchids may rise from where the bodies fell. Fungi made Earth what it is and they will inherit it. They are not a kingdom of life — life is their kingdom.

Almost exactly one year before Charles Dodgson dreamed up Wonderland to amuse ten-year-old Alice Liddell and her two sisters while boating from Oxford to Godstow, a letter by someone who signed himself Cellarius was printed in a New Zealand newspaper under the heading “Darwin Among the Machines.” It would later be revealed as the work of twenty-seven-year-old English writer Samuel Butler. Epochs before the first modern computer and the golden age of algorithms, before we came to call the confluence of the two “artificial intelligence,” Butler prophesied the birth of a new “mechanical kingdom” of our own creation, which would take on a life of its own alongside the kingdoms of nature. “In these last few ages, an entirely new kingdom has sprung up of which we as yet have only seen what will one day be considered the antediluvian prototypes of the race,” he wrote. “We are ourselves creating our own successors; we are daily adding to the beauty and delicacy of their physical organisation… daily giving them greater power… self-acting power.” With an eye to the evolution of consciousness, he asked: “Why may not there arise some new phase of mind which shall be as different from all present known phases, as the mind of animals is from that of vegetables?” More than a century and a half before our modern worries about artificial intelligence, Butler worried that this new kingdom of life would be parasitic upon us. He worried that although the human mind has been “moulded into its present shape by the chances and changes of many millions of years,” the mechanical kingdom evolved in a blink of evolutionary time. “No class of beings have in any time past made so rapid a movement forward,” he cautioned. “Our bondage will steal upon us noiselessly and by imperceptible approaches.”

Perhaps we are on the brink of living Butler’s prophecy because we modeled our machines on the wrong kingdom, modeled their intelligence on our own, only to find that they are as parasitic and predatory as we are, as they parasitize and prey upon us. What if the correct model was always there, hidden beneath our bipedal overconfidence — all this time we have been building and walking and warring over Earth’s original networked intelligence, this planetary übermind transmitting the signal of life via the hypertextual protocols of hyphae, through the mesh topology of mycelium. What if our worship of binary logic is what warped Wonderland? Who would we be if our “artificial” intelligence turned natural, built on the nonbinary logic of symbiosis, restoring the unity of life into a perfect circle with no sides to take?

* * *

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These air fryer mushrooms are ready in less than fifteen minutes and are so easy to prepare! Made with cremini or baby bella mushrooms, they’re simple, savory, and versatile. You have the option to give them additional seasoning with herbs or balsamic vinegar, and you can add them to many types of dishes.

One of the beauties of having an air fryer is the ability to cook vegetables in less time than roasting or sautéing.

These quick air fryer mushrooms have become one of my favorite vegetables to prepare at a moment’s notice or when I’m in a rush to get dinner ready.

I love mushrooms, in all of their umami-packed, savory, ultra-nutritious goodness. For a long time I prepared them almost exclusively by sautéing. Then I switched over to sheet pan roasting.

There’s a time and a place for both of those methods. And there’s a time and a place for shortcuts.

I can’t think of an easier way to prepare mushrooms flavorfully. If you have an air fryer and a taste for funghi, then I recommend it highly!

A savory and nutrient-dense topping

Like many plant-based eaters, I make a lot of recipes that include mushrooms.

Mushrooms are hearty and firm; they also have naturally occurring glutamate, the amino acid that’s associated with umami, or savoriness.

For all of these reasons, mushrooms are often described as being “meaty.” Whether you see it that way or not, they’re a great ingredient for crafting satisfying, plant-based meals.

Mushrooms find their way into my cozy vegan mushroom bourguignon, creamy vegan mushroom pasta, and my savory mushroom farro.

When they’re not playing a starring role in a recipe, mushrooms can also be an easy, savory “add-on” for something else.

What I mean by that is that you can use them as a topping or an instant means of adding more texture, more savoriness, or more heft to a dish that’s otherwise simple.

I like piling my air fryer mushrooms onto think spaghetti marinara, avocado or hummus toast, or a butter side lettuce salad.

And what a nourishing add-on they are: mushrooms are rich in B Vitamins, fiber, potassium, and Vitamin D2. They’re superfoods in the sense of the word that I stand by: nutrient-dense, versatile, and delicious.

What type of mushrooms should I use?

When I make air fryer mushrooms, I usually use halved cremini or baby bella mushrooms. These are two of my favorite varieties.

However, they’re quite similar in shape to humble white button mushrooms. And you can certainly use button mushrooms in the recipe instead.

You can also use halved shiitake mushroom caps—they work nicely in the air fryer! If you use them, you may need only 10 minutes of air frying time.

Air fryer tricks of the trade

My air fryer recipes are written for a four-liter capacity, basket-style air fryer. You can of course convert it to fit a toaster oven style air fryer, if that’s what you have.

And if you also have a basket-style air fryer, but with a larger or smaller capacity than mine, you can scale the recipe up or cut the amounts in half to make it work.

When I make veggies in my air fryer, including these air fryer mushrooms or my cubed air fryer sweet potatoes, I follow a few rules of thumb.

First, I always stop to shake the basket of my air fryer once halfway through the cook time. This helps to avoid any vegetables sticking or uneven cooking.

I also try to avoid over-crowding my appliance. Four liters sounds roomy, and for a solo-dweller it works well. But it’s not a ton of capacity, and if I pile in too many vegetables, they’ll lose some of their crispiness. (They may also take longer to cook.)

Seasoning options

Most of the time, I keep my air fryer mushrooms super simple: olive oil, salt, pepper, and garlic powder.

If I’m in the mood for variation, the two seasoning additions that I turn to are usually balsamic vinegar or fresh herbs, such as thyme, oregano, or rosemary. I’ve included both options in the recipe card.

Other seasonings that I’ve added to the mushrooms before they get air fried:

• Truffle salt
• Crushed red pepper flakes
• Smoked paprika
• Lemon juice or zest

After the air fryer mushrooms are fully cooked, you can also season them with a dressing or sauce. Some ideas:

Of course, these are only ideas. There’s lots of room for possibility here!

How to make air fryer mushrooms

Making air fryer mushrooms couldn’t be easier. When I meal prep them, I nearly always do a double batch. Even when I think I won’t use them all up by the end of the week, I do.

Step 1: Season the mushrooms

First, you’ll put your halved baby bella or cremini mushrooms into a mixing bowl. Add olive oil, salt, pepper, and garlic powder, then mix them well.

I prefer garlic powder to minced garlic for this recipe for two reasons: first, it’s easier to distribute and mix evenly into the mushrooms than fresh garlic. Second, minced garlic can easily burn in an air fryer, turning bitter.

If you have a mister or spray bottle of either olive or avocado oil at home, you can also use it to season the mushrooms. Oil spray is often easier for evenly coating vegetables than a spooned measurement.

Step 2: Air fry for 10-12 minutes

You’ll air fry for a total of 10-12 minutes, but you need to stop midway through the cook time to shake the air fryer basket. This ensures that the mushrooms cook evenly.

One more step to consider: if you’d like to season the mushrooms, you can do so about four minutes before the end of cooking time.

As you can see above, fresh thyme leaved and a drizzle of syrupy balsamic vinegar are my favorite seasonings here.

Shake the basket of the air fryer again, then continue with the last few minutes of air frying. At this point, your mushrooms are ready.

Serving suggestions

You may make a batch of the air fryer mushrooms with a specific purpose in mind: putting them into a vegan pasta dish, for example.

Once you have them in the fridge, though, I bet you’ll find yourself wanting to add them to everything.

I routinely sprinkle them onto bowls of savory oats, crostini with cashew cheese, the top of a bowl of mushroom bulgur bean chili, or a cup of vegan potato leek soup.

You’ll find your own favorite uses. And as you do that, you can rest assured that you’re coming up with new ways to enjoy an especially nutritious veggie.

Meal prep & storage

The air fryer mushrooms can be stored in an airtight container in the fridge for up to four days.

The recipe makes only two servings (easily doubled), and I almost never have reason to freeze them. But you can freeze them, for up to six weeks.

Within the vegetable kingdom, mushrooms can be a little intimidating to cook. This recipe is an approachable starting point, and I hope you’ll find it useful!

xo